Food Ingestion And Energy Transformations | by Francis G. Benedict, Thorne M. Carpenter

With special reference to the stimulating effect of nutrients

Title	Food Ingestion And Energy Transformations
Author	Francis G. Benedict, Thorne M. Carpenter
Publisher	Carnegie Institution of Washington
Year	1918
Copyright	1918, Carnegie Institution of Washington
Amazon	Food Combining and Digestion: Easy to Follow Techniques to Increase Stomach Power and Maximize Digestion

Food Ingestion And Energy Transformations 1

Introduction: During the period of gestation the fetus is supplied with nourishment from the mother through the placenta and no muscular movement or exertion of any kind is required to secure food. After birth much...

Previous Investigations On Metabolism After Food: Lavoisier And Seguin, 1789 The fact that the ingestion of food causes an increase in the metabolism in the body was first made known through the classical researches of Lavoisier and Seguin.1 As wi...

Previous Investigations On Metabolism After Food. Part 2: Fyfe, 1814 At about the same time as Prout's experiments, a number of observations were made by Andrea Fyfe,2 of Edinburgh, which form the basis of a communication made by Prout in 1814.3 Like Prou...

Previous Investigations On Metabolism After Food. Part 3: Vierordt, 1845 The next two contributions to the experimental research on the respiratory exchange as affected by the ingestion of food unfortunately deal with a very imperfect method for both samp...

Previous Investigations On Metabolism After Food. Part 4: Ranke, 1861 The large respiration chamber constructed by Pet-tenkofer and Voit in Munich was apparently used for the first time with man in June 1861, for a series of experiments carried out by Ran...

Previous Investigations On Metabolism After Food. Part 5: Speck, 1873 The possibility for change in the character of the metabolism after the ingestion of food of varying chemical composition, with consequent changes in the carbon-dioxide excretion not at...

Previous Investigations On Metabolism After Food. Part 6: Lehmann, Mueller, Munk, Senator, And Zuntz, 1887-1893 The first use of the Zuntz-Geppert respiration apparatus for studying the metabolism of man was in the series of observations made on the fasti...

Previous Investigations On Metabolism After Food. Part 7: Loewy, 1888 In a series of experiments made by Loewy1 in Zuntz's laboratory and primarily designed to study the influence of unoxi-dizable material (Glauber salts) in the intestinal tract, two expe...

Previous Investigations On Metabolism After Food. Part 8: Zuntz And Magnus-Levy, 1891 In studying the digestibility and nutritive value of bread, Zuntz and Magnus-Levy,1 employing a Zuntz-Geppert respiration apparatus, made a number of experiments on them...

Previous Investigations On Metabolism After Food. Part 9: Magnus-Levy, 1894 Recognizing clearly the fact that the increment in metabolism following the ingestion of food persists only a relatively short time, Magnus-Levy,3 employing the Zuntz-Geppert resp...

Previous Investigations On Metabolism After Food. Part 10: Johansson, Landergren, Sonden, And Tigerstedt, 1897 In their research on metabolism during fasting, Johansson, Landergren, Sonden, and Tigerstedt,1 using the large Sonden-Tigerstedt respiration cha...

Previous Investigations On Metabolism After Food. Part 11: Reach, 1902 In connection with an investigation on rectal feeding, Reach3 made 2 experiments, each with 60 grams of dextrose, and 3 experiments with 60 grams of cane sugar, the sugars being given p...

Previous Investigations On Metabolism After Food. Part 12: Cronheim, 1905 Employing the Zuntz-Geppert technique, Cron-heim2 reports the study of the influence of a highly nitrogenous (81.2 per cent protein) preparation, somatose, upon the metabolism. He co...

Previous Investigations On Metabolism After Food. Part 13: Von Willebrand, 1908 Although the observations were carried out on obese patients rather than on normal individuals, the experiments of von Willebrand1 are of interest, since he studied the metabol...

Previous Investigations On Metabolism After Food. Part 14: Roily And Undeutsch, 1911-13 Employing the universal respiration apparatus devised in the Nutrition Laboratory, although in a modified and unnecessarily complicated form, Roily and his associate Un...

Previous Investigations On Metabolism After Food. Part 15: Laeffler, 1912 Loeffler,4 working under the direction of Gigon in the Poliklinik in Basel, made a study of basal metabolism and likewise of the metabolism after the ingestion of 50 grams each of an...

Previous Investigations On Metabolism After Food. Part 16: Grafe, 1913 Grafe,3 using his admirable model of the Jaquet apparatus in the Heidelberg clinic for observations on a professional fasting woman, noted that the basal metabolism during fast was 1,18...

Previous Investigations On Metabolism After Food. Summary Of Previous Investigations: In spite of the wide variations observed in the increase of the metabolism with different foodstuffs, there is a distinct uniformity in the majority of experiments which indicates that the act of taki...

Basal Metabolism: To study the influence upon metabolism of such a factor as the ingestion of food, the energy requirements of the quiescent body prior to the ingestion of the food must be known, for otherwise the meas...

Basal Metabolism. Continued: At this point we may ask: What is the lowest metabolism? If in a normal state of nutrition the voluntary muscles of the body are so perfectly controlled that there is no visible movement, the muscles ...

Experiments Of 24 Hours' Duration: The earliest experiments included in this study, which were made with the respiration calorimeter at Wesleyan University, Middletown, Connecticut, used the 24-hour day as a unit. This was in accordanc...

Experiments Of 24 Hours' Duration. Part 2: Again, the 24-hour period gives no information as to the time relations or the maximum effect following the ingestion of food. We are thus unable to tell from the results whether the increase extends ...

Experiments Of 24 Hours' Duration. Part 3: The next series of experiments, that with S. A. B., January 7 to 12, 1905, included a 4-day fasting experiment, followed by a food experiment of only one day, as the subject was unable to continue the...

Experiments Of 24 Hours' Duration. Part 4: As a result of the somewhat unsatisfactory experience with fairly long preliminary fasts, the experimental plan was altered so as to include fasts of only 2 days' duration in an attempt to minimize th...

Experiments Of 24 Hours' Duration. Part 5: The routine of this later experiment was but little modified from that of the experiment of November 21 to 23, the records of the body activity being substantially the same as in the earlier experimen...

Experiments Of 24 Hours' Duration. Part 6: Following the 2-day fasting experiment with A. H. M., December 3 to 5, 1906, a 1-day food experiment was carried out December 5 to 6, in which the somewhat unfortunate attempt was made to have the sub...

Experiments Of 24 Hours' Duration. Part 7: The results of the food experiment with A. H. M., February 2 to 3, 1906, are given in table 22, together with the average values for the fasting experiment of November 21 to 23,1905. The values obtain...

Experiments Of Approximately 8 Hours: The unsatisfactory termination of the attempts to use the 24-hour period in studying the influence of the ingestion of food upon metabolism led to a rearrangement of the experimental plans and the sub...

Middletown Calorimeter Experiments (8-Hour Basis): The 8-hour plan was used successfully in a large number of experiments at Wesleyan University in which the basal metabolism was studied for approximately this period on one day and on a subsequent day...

Middletown Calorimeter Experiments (8-Hour Basis). Continued: The average basal metabolism for each subject is recorded in table 27, in which are given the average values for the body-weight, the carbon dioxide produced, oxygen consumed, heat produced, and nitro...

Boston Calorimeter Experiments (8-Hour Basis): In the experiments on the 8-hour plan in Boston, both the chair calorimeter and the bed calorimeter were used for measuring the metabolism. In the chair calorimeter, which was the first calorimeter co...

Boston Calorimeter Experiments (8-Hour Basis). Part 2: With the subject F. M. M., a larger number of prolonged experiments were made, many of them continuing for 6 hours. The results are given in table 30. An examination of the averages indicates again a ...

Boston Calorimeter Experiments (8-Hour Basis). Part 3: The series of experiments with L. E. E., in which only the chair calorimeter was used, extended over a relatively short period of time - i. e., from March 14 to May 11, 1910. (See table 32.) The avera...

Boston Calorimeter Experiments (8-Hour Basis). Part 4: For the purpose of indicating the protein metabolism of these Boston subjects, we have included in table 35 average values for the nitrogen excretion per hour, not only for the calorimeter experiments...

Short-Period Experiments: An examination of the literature (see pages 10 to 46) shows that many of the researches have been carried out with short periods ranging from 2 hours to 10 or 15 minutes; the majority of the experimen...

Experiments With H. L. H: The most extensive series of experiments was obtained with Mr. H. L. Higgins, who was long connected with the experimental work of the Nutrition Laboratory. The first experiment with this subject was ...

Experiments With L. E. E: Another series of experiments was carried out with Mr. L.E. Emmes, who has also long been associated with this laboratory. This series extended from April 26, 1909, to July 29, 1915, inclusive, all bu...

Experiments With J. K. M: The third subject was a former laboratory assistant, J. K. M. Values for eight periods, i. e., from approximately 8h30m a. m. to 12h 30m p. m., are recorded. The data for the carbon-dioxide production...

Experiments With Other Subjects: It is impracticable to publish in detail all of the values obtained with the other subjects included in this study, as the mass of data is so extensive. To show the particular point emphasized in this...

Conclusions Regarding Short-Period Experiments: The results just discussed were obtained with men in good health, from 17 to 40 years of age. Unfortunately the observations of the metabolism of individuals over 30 years of age are not so extended a...

Use Of Average Basal Values For Comparison: A considerable amount of experimental evidence has accumulated regarding the relationship of the average basal values of different individuals.1 The comparison of the results obtained with different s...

Use Of Average Basal Values For Comparison. Part 2: The possible fluctuations in the metabolism have likewise been shown for 35 subjects1 who were studied for periods of time varying from 5 days to 4 years and 5 months. In all cases the subjects were i...

Use Of Average Basal Values For Comparison. Part 3: While in this research our experience in securing a general basal value for use is by no means satisfactory, it has occasionally been necessary to use an average base-line. Inasmuch as a large number ...

General Details Regarding The Research: The experiments in 1905,1906, and 1907, included in this research on the effect upon the metabolism of the ingestion of food, were made at Wesleyan University, Middletown, Connecticut, and those subse...

General Details Regarding The Research. Continued: Table 49 gives a list of the food experiments, grouped according to the apparatus and diet used. It shows that 59 experiments were made with the respiration calorimeter in Middletown, 41 experiments w...

Metabolism During Chewing: Of the various processes classified by Professor Armsby1 as prior to actual digestion, the work of prehension is hardly suitable for experimental study, since it would vary greatly with different indi...

Metabolism During Chewing. Part 2. Calorimeter Experiments: A. L.L.,8h40ma.m.to4h40mp.m., Aprils, 1906. 67.6 Kilograms Urinated at 4h42m and 7 p. m. Studied most of time and very quiet. Chewed rapidly and regularly. Basal periods: body-temperature, 36.69&de...

Metabolism During Chewing. Part 3. Respiration Experiments: T. M. C, 12 Noon To 12h50m P. M., December 17, 1910 Light breakfast at 7h30m a. m. (two small slices toasted and buttered white bread and cupful of coffee, with cream and sugar). Rate of chewing, 6...

Discussion Of Results Of Chewing Experiments: In two of the Middletown calorimeter experiments, slight increments in the heat output were observed; the third showed a slight decrease. The data in tables 52 to 54 also show that the increments in t...

Ingestion Of Water: Large amounts of water are regularly consumed by all individuals throughout life. Since one or more liters pass through the body in 24 hours, it is hardly conceivable that such passage is unaccompanie...

Ingestion Of Water. Part 2. Statistics Of Experiments: The effect of water-drinking was studied in this research in five calorimeter experiments and six respiration experiments. The experiments with the respiration calorimeter at Middletown, Connecticut, ...

Ingestion Of Water. Part 2. Calorimeter Experiments: A. H. M., 9h8m A. M. To 5h28m P. M., March 16, 1907. 66.3 Kilograms Urinated shortly before 7 o'clock (after enema); attempted to urinate near beginning of each period, urinating at 9h35m a. m., 12...

Ingestion Of Water. Part 4: Table 69. - A. H. M., March 16, 1907. Sitting. (2-Hour Periods). Water (22 C), 1,584 Grams Basal values (March 6 and 9, 1907): CO2, 51 grams; O2, 46 grams; heat, 164 cals. Nitrogen in urine, 0...

Discussion Of Results Of Water-Drinking Experiments: Of special significance is the fact that in the three Boston calorimeter experiments the heat output as reported is heat eliminated and not heat produced; that is, the heat measurements have not been ...

Ingestion Of Coffee: Although the earlier experimenters made but few observations on the effect of drinking hot or cold water, we find a number of studies on the effect of taking tea and coffee. Of special interest is the...

Ingestion Of Coffee. Part 2. Calorimeter Experiments: A. W. W., 8h21m a. m. to 4h21m p. m., April 12, 1907. 58.G kilograms - No apparent diuretic or bad effects from drinking coffee. Urinated at 7h40m a. m. (after enema) and once in every period except f...

Ingestion Of Coffee. Part 3. Respiration Experiments: J. J. C, 8h57m A. M. To 4h52m P. M., March 9, 1911. 64.3 Kilograms Low-carbohydrate supper preceding day. Coffee made in proportion of two heaping tablespoonfuls of coffee to one cupful of water an...

Discussion Of Results Of Coffee Experiments: As the coffee was taken hot in both of the calorimeter experiments, the same difficulties exist in making the proper correction for the changes in body-temperature that were indicated in the water-dri...

Ingestion Of Beef Tea: The noticeable increase in metabolism found by the earlier investigators as a result of the ingestion of flesh led to tests on animals to determine the influence of extracts which consist chiefly of c...

Ingestion Of Beef Tea. Part 2. Calorimeter Experiments: E. H. B., 8h27m A. M. To 4h27m P. M., April 8, 1907. 72.9 Kilograms Urinated 6h50m a. m. and 4h27m p. m.; took enema about 7h45m a. m. More or less activity in first period in connection with recei...

Ingestion Of Beef Tea. Part 3: Table 94. - J. R., May 13, 1910. Sitting. (1-Hour Periods). Beef Tea (44.1 C) Amount, 314 grams; nitrogen, 1.26 grams; total energy, 48 cals. Fuel value: Total, 37 cals.; from protein, 86 p...

Ingestion Of Beef Tea. Part 4: Table 99. - V. G., February 3, 1911. Lying. (Values Per Minute). Beef Tea (68.7 To 60.0 C) Amount, 269 grams; nitrogen, 0.98 gram; total energy, 38 cals. Fuel value: Total, 30 cals...

Discussion Of Results Of Beef-Tea Experiments: An examination of the summary of values given for the calorimeter experiments in table 67 (see page 135) shows that there was but little or no increase in the heat output in these experiments. The max...

Ingestion Of Carbohydrates: In the historical development of the study on the influence of food upon the metabolism the first observations in which demonstrable increases could be determined were those with protein. These increa...

Ingestion Of Carbohydrates. Calorimeter Experiments: The agreement between the results obtained by direct and indirect calorimetry in the calorimeter experiments was, in many instances, extremely unsatisfactory, so much so that for a long time we were d...

Statistics Of Calorimeter Experiments: The results of all of the calorimeter experiments with carbohydrates are given in tables 101 to 122. Statistical data regarding these experiments, not included in the tables or the discussion, are as ...

Statistics Of Calorimeter Experiments. Part 2: F. M. M., 10h24m A. M. To 4h24m P. M., April 8, 1909. 59.4 Kilograms. 3 Basal Periods Urinated and defecated at 9h05ma. m., urinated at lh32m p. m. and immediately after experiment. At end of third...

Statistics Of Calorimeter Experiments. Part 3: It should be noted that for computing the increment in the heat production by the indirect method the basal value computed by indirect calorimetry (152 calories) was used in place of the basal value o...

Maltose-Dextrose Mixture: The only pure carbohydrate used in the calorimeter experiments was sucrose. The fear of digestive disturbances, which subsequent experimenting proved groundless, led us to consider the possibility of ...

Maltose-Dextrose Mixture. Continued: J. J. C, March 4, 1910 Following the ingestion of 145 grams of maltose-dextrose mixture and the juice of one lemon, with a total energy value of 449 calories, positive increases were found for the ...

Bananas And Sugar: Bananas and sugar were given in several experiments, as considerable amounts could be consumed and the total energy intake in the form of carbohydrate thus be greatly increased. The results of 7 exper...

Bananas And Sugar. Continued: A. L. L., April 19, 1906 (763 Grams Bananas And 99 Grams Sugar, With A Fuel Value Of 1,147 Calories) In this second experiment with A. L. L. the amounts of bananas and sugar eaten were almost ident...

Bananas: In February 1910, three experiments were made in Boston with bananas only. One of the subjects had been used in two of the series of experiments previously considered. F. M. M., February 8, 1910 (4...

Popcorn: The use of an insoluble carbohydrate in a fruit (banana) presented certain facilities for the absorption and digestion of carbohydrate that would not obtain if starch were given. To approximate starch...

Rice: The changes in the metabolism due to the ingestion of boiled rice were also studied in one experiment in Middletown. A. L. L., May 27, 1907 (652 Grams Rice, With A Fuel Value Of 432 Calories) As...

General Discussion Of Calorimeter Experiments With Carbohydrates: In the foregoing discussion of the individual calorimeter experiments certain features common to each were pointed out. From the results given in tables 101 to 122, we may conclude that the effect on ...

Maximum Effect Of Carbohydrate Ingestion On Metabolism (Direct Calorimetry): To what extent the basal heat production may be increased as a result of carbohydrate ingestion may best be shown by considering the data in table 123. In this table the results are grouped according ...

Maximum Effect Of Carbohydrate Ingestion On Metabolism (Direct Calorimetry). Continued: The time at which the maximum effect appears is likewise of great importance. An examination of the figures given in the last column shows that in all but a few instances the highest value appeared in...

Total Increments In Metabolism After Carbohydrate Ingestion (Direct Calorimetry): The discussion thus far has dealt primarily with the extent to which the basal metabolism may be increased temporarily by the ingestion of varying amounts of carbohydrates and the time relations betwe...

Total Increments In Metabolism After Carbohydrate Ingestion. Part 2: The percentages for the total increment above the basal value as computed for the mixed carbohydrates are likewise shown in table 124. The starch as ingested in the experiments with mixed carbohydrate...

Total Increments In Metabolism After Carbohydrate Ingestion. Part 3: The universal respiration apparatus measures both the carbon-dioxide excretion and the oxygen consumption, and special records are made of the pulse rate and the respiration rate. The spirometer form ...

Statistics Of Respiration Experiments: With so large a number of respiration experiments, it seems needless to discuss them individually; hence only the statistical data are given here, grouped according to the carbohydrate used, with the ...

Dextrose Experiments: J. J. C, 9h47m A. M. To 4h05m P. M., March 7, 1911. 64.2 Kilograms Very quiet in first basal period, probably slept a little; marked tendency to fall asleep in second period; in second, third, and ...

Dextrose Experiments. Continued: Table 131. - H. L. H., May 24, 1911. Lying. (Values Per Minute). Dextrose Amounts, 100 grams dextrose, juice of half lemon; energy, 380 cals.; from carbohydrates, 100 p. ct. Ti...

Levulose Experiments: K. H. A., 8h29m A. M. To 1h33m P. M., May 18, 1912. 66.5 Kilograms In first food period opened mouth once; in fourth food period pulse rate very irregular; possibly opened mouth in this period; adh...

Sucrose Experiments: H. H. A., 7h42m A. To. To 12h56m P. To., January 2, 1912.1 61.2 Kilograms Urinated and defecated between fifth and sixth food periods, resting about 15 minutes afterward. Nitrogen in urine per hour...

Sucrose Experiments. Part 2: V. G., 8h47m A. M. To 2h53m P. M., November 18, 1910. 53.9 Kilograms Two pillows and wooden head-rest. Very quiet during first five basal periods, at times showing tendency to go to sleep; fell asl...

Sucrose Experiments. Part 3: Table 163. - V. G., November 21, 1910. Lying. (Values Per Minute). Sucrose Amounts, 73 grams sucrose, juice of half lemon; energy, 295 cals.; from carbohydrates, 100 p. ct. Time. ...

Lactose Experiments: K. H. A., 8h45m A. M. To Lh07m P. M., May 23, 1912. 65.8 Kilograms At 10h30m p. m. on preceding day took corn breakfast food (dry) with milk and sugar, one cup coffee with milk and teaspoonful suga...

General Discussion Of Respiration Experiments With Carbohydrates: An inspection of tables 126 to 168 shows that the typical picture of a marked increase in the carbon-dioxide production appears in practically every case. The increment in the oxygen consumption, alth...

Maximum Effect On Metabolism Of Carbohydrate Ingestion (Indirect Calorimetry): We have reason to believe that not only the different sugars but also the different amounts of sugars vary somewhat in regard to the actual height to which the metabolism may be increased and the time...

Maximum Effect On Metabolism Of Carbohydrate Ingestion (Indirect Calorimetry). Continued: Table 170. - Maximum Effect Of Ingestion Of Levulose On Carbon Dioxide, Oxygen, And Heat In Respiration Experiments Subject and date. Carbon dioxide. Oxygen. ...

Comparison Of Maximum Increments Obtained With Various Pure Carbohydrates: A comparison of the percentages of greatest increase shown by the four sugars is given in table 173. The average period of observation was practically the same for all of the carbohydrates, although s...

Total Increment In Metabolism After Carbohydrate Ingestion (Indirect Calorimetry): In the preceding section special emphasis has been laid upon the maximum increment in terms of percentage of the basal value - in other words, the absolute height to which the basal metabolism can be ...

Total Increment In Metabolism After Carbohydrate Ingestion. Dextrose: The total increments in the metabolism as a result of the ingestion of dextrose are given in table 174. Considering first only the increments obtained with 100 grams of dextrose, we find that the tota...

Comparison Of Total Increments In Metabolism Obtained With Various Pur Carbohydrates: A comparison of the several carbohydrates in their effect upon the metabolism can best be made by a tabular presentation of the averages for the total increments obtained with the different carbohydra...

The Respiratory Quotient After Ingestion Of Carbohydrates: Although the basal values for the respiratory quotients for the calorimeter experiments were not secured in all cases on the same day, quotients considerably above 0.90 were frequently obtained in the...

The Respiratory Quotient After Ingestion Of Carbohydrates. Sucrose: A study of the respiratory quotients after the ingestion of sucrose is given in table 181. The post-absorptive values for these experiments ranged from 0.72 to 0.88, with an average value of 0.83. The...

Comparison Of Respiratory Quotients Obtained With Various Pure Carbohtdrates: A comparison of the respiratory quotients obtained after the ingestion of various sugars is made in table 183, in which the number of experiments, the average post-absorptive values, the average quoti...

General Discussion Of Results Obtained With Pure Carbohydrates: The increase in the respiratory quotient subsequent to the ingestion of carbohydrate is in practically all instances due to a pronounced rise in the carbon-dioxide production rather than to a decrease...

Ingestion Of Fat: While it was relatively easy in this research to obtain subjects that could eat large quantities of protein and especially of carbohydrates, it was difficult to obtain those who could take large amoun...

Discussion Of Experiments. Olive Oil (Mayonnaise): The experiment with A. H. M., December 5 to 6, 1906, was fully discussed in a previous section in which the basal metabolism was considered. Although originally planned for a 24-hour experiment, it wa...

Cream: A. L.L., March 27,1906 This was the initial experiment of a series in which the three subjects took essentially the same amount of cream. The details of the experiment are given in table 184. In th...

Cream. Continued: D. J. M., March 23, June 3, And June 7, 1910 In this series of 3 experiments, 221 grams, 398 grams, and 376 grams of cream, respectively, were taken. The subject was not especially satisfactory, as...

Butter And Potato Chips: Relatively large amounts of fat were ingested in the diet of butter and potato chips. The latter is a common food material in America and consists of thin slices of raw potato fried in deep fat. As a ...

Butter And Potato Chips. Continued: Table 194. - A. W. W., April 25, 1907. Sitting. (2-Hour Periods). Butter And Potato Chips Amounts, 85 grams butter, 104 grams potato chips; nitrogen, 1.05 grams; total energy, 1,285 cals. Fuel valu...

Conclusions Regarding Effect Of Ingestion Of Fat: Although the experiments in this series can hardly be considered as ideal, being open to the criticisms raised in their discussion, yet the preponderance of evidence clearly shows that the ingestion o...

Ingestion Of Predominatingly Protein Diets: No single nutrient, when ingested, produces so great an effect upon the metabolism as protein does. In fact, the earlier observations, particularly those made by Rubner and Magnus-Levy with dogs and m...

Beefsteak. Middletown Calorimeter Experiments: The four Middletown experiments, which were made with but two subjects, are best discussed according to the amounts of food ingested, as they were planned for comparison purposes. In the first pair of...

Beefsteak. Middletown Calorimeter Experiments. Continued: A. W. W., April 6, 1907 Essentially the same amount of food was taken in this experiment as in that on the preceding day with A. H. M., i. e., 755 grams, with a total nitrogen content of 34.67 gram...

Boston Calorimeter Experiments: Following the construction of the respiration calorimeters1 in the Nutrition Laboratory, a series of five experiments subsequent to the ingestion of beefsteak was made with the chair calorimeter, begi...

Boston Calorimeter Experiments. Continued: F. M. M., December 10,1908 A somewhat smaller amount of beefsteak was taken by this subject than that taken by the subject of the preceding experiment, the amount in this case being 217 grams, with...

Beefsteak And Small Amounts Of Other Food Materials: In addition to the calorimeter experiments in which beefsteak alone was eaten, a number of experiments were made in which the diet included small amounts of bread or potato chips. The fact that these ...

Beefsteak And Small Amounts Of Other Food Materials. Continued: F. M. M.. January 14, 1910 With 201 grams of beefsteak only 24 grams of bread were eaten in the experiment on this date, corresponding to about 13 grams of carbohydrate. This amount probably had bu...

Beefsteak And Potato Chips: As it was somewhat difficult for the subjects to eat beefsteak alone, approximately 20 grams of potato chips were taken in a few of the Boston calorimeter experiments. The potato chips contained a con...

Beefsteak And Potato Chips. Continued: J. J. C, May 11, 1911 This is one of the few experiments in this research in which the bed calorimeter was used instead of the chair calorimeter. In the bed calorimeter there is usually a somewhat ...

Respiration Experiments With Beefsteak: The series of respiration experiments with beefsteak included 14 experiments with 10 subjects made between November 3, 1910, and December 12, 1914. The routine in these experiments was not unlike that...

Prolonged Effect Of Protein: Two respiration experiments were carried out in July, 1911, to study the metabolism several hours after the ingestion of beefsteak. In both instances the steak was eaten at midnight and the subsequent...

Conclusions As To The Effect Of Ingesting Beefsteak: A study of the results obtained from all of the experiments in which beefsteak was ingested leads us to the conclusion that 200 grams of cooked steak, containing 8 to 10 grams of nitrogen, produce a r...

Glidine: In May 1910, five experiments were made with a vegetable protein substance called glidine,2 which is claimed to be the gliadin of wheat. As will be seen from table 50 (page 124), this food material ...

Glidine. Continued: L. E. E., May 11, 1910 The same amount of glidine was taken as in the first experiment with this subject; the basal value was determined immediately before the observations with glidine. The result...

Gluten Bread And Skim Milk: In some of the earliest experiments in this study a special gluten bread was used which was made in the laboratory and contained a minimum amount of carbohydrate. As much of this bread as possible was...

Gluten Bread And Skim Milk. Continued: H. R. D., May 17, 1906 The third experiment with this subject was made with a considerably larger amount of gluten bread, but the amount of skim milk was also increased. The total nitrogen intake w...

Plasmon And Skim Milk: The glidine used in the protein experiments represented an approximately pure vegetable protein; the gluten was also a vegetable protein. To study the effect of an animal protein, plasmon, a food mate...

Summary Of Results Of Experiments On Ingestion Of Protein: A general examination of the details of the experiments discussed in the preceding part of this section shows conclusively that following the ingestion of protein there is a distinct increase in the m...

Summary Of Results Of Experiments On Ingestion Of Protein. Continued: For a true comparison of the results of the different experiments, it is necessary to compare only those in which approximately the same amounts of nitrogen were ingested and with experimental periods...

Ingestion Of Mixed Nutrients: Studies with a single mixed nutrient were made with but one food material, this being whole milk. In addition, two experiments were made in which the milk was combined with one other food material, an...

Ingestion Of Mixed Nutrients. Continued: A. H. M., March 23, 1906 Following the ingestion of 599 grams milk and 8 grams of lime-water, with a fuel value of 385 calories, an increment was obtained in the carbon-dioxide production in the fi...

Mixed Diet: While the study of specific food materials is of abstract physiological value, especially those containing but a single nutrient like the sugars in our study of the carbohydrates, nevertheless the mos...

Mixed Diet. Continued: H. L. H., June 14, 1910 The experiment with this subject differed considerably from the four previous experiments discussed in that it was but 5 hours long and the measurements were made with the b...

Heavy Breakfast: During the third week of February 1906, the Middletown respiration calorimeter was employed for studying the increment in the metabolism due to the eating of a large amount of food. The meal selected ...

Heavy Breakfast. Continued: A.H.M., February 19, 1906 The diet in this experiment consisted of 204 grams bananas, 63 grams potato chips, 29 grams potted chicken, 139 grams whole wheat breakfast food (dry), 103 grams graham br...

Heavy Supper: Two experiments were made with the Middletown calorimeter in which excessive amounts of food were taken as a supper. Otherwise the experiments were similar in plan to the heavy-breakfast experiments, ...

Respiration Experiments: In the calorimeter experiments no attempt was made to apportion the increment from period to period and study the time relations to find if there were a peak effect. This was possible only with shor...

Previously Published Experiments With Mixed Diets: In an earlier publication on fasting,1 four food experiments with mixed diets were reported following fasts of 4 to 7 days in duration. These have already been discussed in our consideration of the ba...

Previously Published Experiments With Mixed Diets. Part 2: In the first experiment with S. A. B., the ingestion of food, with a fuel value essentially that of maintenance during fasting, resulted in a slight increase in the metabolism on the first food day ov...

Some Relationships Between Energy Output And Food Intake: The evidence presented in the foregoing chapters of this book deals principally with the energy transformations incidental to the ingestion of food. The experimental plan, while undergoing many change...

General Quantitative Relations: The fact that different amounts of the several foodstuffs produce varying increases in metabolism would make it appear that the establishment of definite mathematical relationships between the amounts...

Relationship Of The Fuel Value Of Ingested Food To Excess Heat Production: A relationship of unusual interest is that of the increase in the heat production following the ingestion of food to that of the fuel value of the food taken. While it may seem at first sight a gross ...

Relationship Of The Fuel Value Of Ingested Food To Excess Heat Production. Part 2: If we compare the fuel value of the diet with the subsequent increase in the heat production, we obtain a mathematical relationship which may properly be designated as the cost of digestion. This de...

Relationship Of Fuel Value Of Ingested Food To Excess Heat Production. Part 3: The fuel values for the diet are at times extraordinarily high. Thus, in the experiment of February 16, 1906, the subject consumed a breakfast of mixed diet having an actual fuel value of approximatel...

Relationship Of Fuel Value Of Ingested Food To Excess Heat Production. Part 4: The large number of experiments with relatively pure carbohydrates permits a comparison of the values for the different kinds of carbohydrate. With dextrose it is seen that the cost of digestion range...

Special Relations Of Protein Diets To Energy Transformations: With diets consisting primarily of carbohydrates and fat no special indices are available as to the proportion of fat and carbohydrate burned in the body other than the relationship between the carbon...

Causes Of Increase In Metabolism Subsequent To Ingestion Of Food: In the light of present knowledge, it would appear as a subject for severe criticism that an investigation on the influence of the ingestion of food upon metabolism which continued for a decade should...

General Conclusions: Many of the conceptions as to the influence of the ingestion of food upon the heat production have long been held and need no material modification. But as most of such evidence was obtained in experi...

Appendix. Suggestions As To Method For Studying The Effect Upon Basal Metabolism Of Ingestion Of Food Or Drugs: In reporting the results of these investigations on the effect of the ingestion of food upon the metabolism, it seems appropriate, in view of our experience with various foods and numerous subjects du...

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