Johansson, Landergren, Sonden, And Tigerstedt, 1897

In their research on metabolism during fasting, Johansson, Landergren, Sonden, and Tigerstedt,1 using the large Sonden-Tigerstedt respiration chamber in Stockholm, planned the experiments in such a way that comparisons showing the influence of food were readily made. Thus, with characteristic foresight, the research was planned to include 2 days with usual diet, 5 days of fasting, and finally 2 days with the ordinary diet. The carbon-dioxide excretion was determined in 11 successive 2-hour periods and careful analyses were made of the food and excreta. Since on the first food day the carbon-dioxide production was determined for only the night period, there remain but 3 food days of 22 hours each that can be used for comparison. The food consisted of bread, butter, cheese, meat, beer, milk, potatoes, bouillon, etc., with a protein content per day varying from 148 to 223 grams, a fat content of 238 to 263 grams, and a carbohydrate content of 261 to 283 grams. The separation of the carbon-dioxide production into periods of awake and asleep shows that these authors recognized thus early the significance of securing the most advantageously comparable periods, namely, when there was complete muscular repose during sleep. The average values given for the carbon-dioxide production per 2-hour period for the 9 days are shown in table 5. Since the carbon-dioxide production was determined in 2-hour periods, it was possible to study the diurnal variations. The average values found for these periods on the food days and fasting days are therefore compared in table 6.

Table 5. - Carbon-Dioxide Production After Food And During Fast (Johansson And Associates)

(2-hour periods).

1Johansson, Landergren, Sonden, and Tigerstedt, Skand. Arch. f. Physiol., 1897, 7, p. 29.

In a discussion of the results the authors consider the total metabolism per kilogram on the fifth fasting day as equal to 100, and state that the metabolism during the food days is 128.4, 122.0, and 117.8 per cent of the basal value respectively. They recognize that the low values found during fasting may perhaps be ascribed to decreased muscular movement due to the weakened condition of the subject. They also point out that this decrease in the carbon-dioxide production is observed during sleep, for on the food days the average carbon-dioxide production per kilogram in sleep is 35.4 per cent greater than the corresponding average value on the fifth day of fasting, while the minimum value is 43.4 per cent greater than the corresponding minimum value during the fifth day of fasting. In discussing the bearing of these experiments upon the problem of the dynamics of digestion the authors state:

"In wie fern dies, wie es sich Lehmann und Zuntz vorstellen, von der Ver-dauungsarbeit herruhrt oder ob die Zufuhr von Nahrung in der That den Stoffwechsel erhoht, daruber giebt uns der vorliegende Versuch keine bestimmten Anhaltspunkte."1

Basing the discussion of the energy transformations wholly upon the carbon-dioxide production is of course open to the serious objection that in many instances we may have a simple protein-fat kata-bolism replaced by a katabolism consisting essentially of carbohydrate, thus increasing enormously the carbon-dioxide production without a corresponding increase in the total energy transformations. Nevertheless it is clear that in these experiments there was a great increase in the metabolism on the food days.

Laschtschenko, 1898

To study the influence of water-drinking upon the carbon-dioxide output of the body in man, Laschtschenko,2 working in Rubner's Institute in Berlin and employing the Rubner modification of the Pettenkofer-Voit chamber, made a series of experiments on himself as subject. Each experiment lasted about 5 hours, during which the subject read but was otherwise in complete muscular repose. Water was taken in 250 c.c. portions at regular intervals to the amount of 2 liters, the last portion being drunk an hour before the end of the experiment. Since the experiments were designed to study likewise the influence of environmental temperature, a number were made at a temperature of 17.3° to 19.1° C, others at 31.9° to 32.7° C, and some at 37.4° to 37.6° C. The author concludes that at room temperature, 17° to 19° C, there is no effect on the carbon-dioxide production as the result of drinking water. At a temperature of 31° to 32° C. there is a very slight increase in the carbon-dioxide production. At a temperature of 37° C. the data are negative.

Table 6. - Average Diurnal Variations In Carbon-Dioxide Production After Food And During Fast (Johansson And Associates)

(Values in grams).

1Obta;ned during sleep.

1Johansson, Landergren, Sonden, and Tigerstedt, Skand. Arch. f. Physiol., 1897, 7, p. 61. 2Laschtschenko, Arch. f. Hyg., 1898, 33, p. 145.

Jaquet And Svenson, 1900

Although Jaquet and Svenson1 worked with obese subjects, their experiences are not without interest. Using the Zuntz-Geppert respiration apparatus and making experiments at least 12 hours after the last meal, they studied the effect of a meat diet, also of a mixed diet consisting of coffee, milk, bread, butter, meat, rice, wine, potato, and carrots. The average fasting values found lie within the normal limits obtained by other investigators. From the food experiments the authors conclude that the increase in the combustion processes caused by the ingestion of food is decidedly less and of shorter duration with these three obese individuals than with normal men.

Koraen, 1901

Using precisely the same respiration apparatus as Sonden and Tigerstedt, Koraen2 in 1901 published under the direction of Johansson a series of observations on himself to study the influence of the ingestion of various kinds of foods. In these experiments special care was taken to secure muscular repose. The series consisted of 6 fasting experiments, 6 with the ingestion of 65.6 grams of fat, 6 with 160 grams of cane sugar, and 8 with 215 grams of cooked ham which supplied about 52 grams of protein. In 6 other experiments a mixed diet, consisting of 250 grams of uncooked carrots, 125 grams of rye bread, and 20 grams of butter, was used. The author concludes that the total metabolism shows no increase after the ingestion of about 66 grams of fat, rises somewhat after the ingestion of about 165 grams of cane sugar, and increases markedly after 52 grams of protein. A marked increase was also noted after the ingestion of the mixed diet. After the ingestion of protein the basal value was not reached until about the seventh hour, but after the ingestion of the mixed diet it was reached about the fifth hour.

Zuntz And Schumburg, 1901

In their well-known study on the physiology of walking, Zuntz and Schumburg3 report a few experiments with their two subjects which may be used for noting the influence of the ingestion of food. They record that with one subject the noon meal resulted in an increase in the oxygen consumption of 22 per cent and with the other 20.5 per cent.

1Jaquet and Svenson, Zeitschr. f. klin. Med., 1900, 41, p. 375.

2Koraen, Skand. Arch. f. Physiol., 1901, 11, p. 176.

3 Zuntz and Schumburg, Physiologie des Marsches, 1901.

Rubner, 1902

For the purpose of this discussion the majority of the remarkable experiments carried out by Rubner are not available for comparison purposes, since his researches were for the most part with animals, particularly dogs, and in only a few instances with men. He does, however, report a series of experiments1 in which the first day was a 24-hour fasting experiment, on the second day the subject ate a large amount of meat, on the third day he did work, on the fourth day he received 600 grams of cane sugar, and on the last day he performed work on a sugar diet. A preliminary report of this experiment was made in abstract form in 1902.2 Using the later values, which probably have a greater degree of accuracy, we find that the heat production per 24 hours at rest was, during fasting 1,976 calories, with sugar 2,023 calories, and with protein 2,515 calories. The surprising feature of this experiment is the fact that the ingestion of 600 grams of cane sugar and 3,000 c.c. of water produced an increase in the heat production of only 2.4 per cent; the ingestion of protein, on the other hand, resulted in an increase in the heat production of 27.2 per cent.