Breslau, Bonn, and Tubingen have two theological faculties, Catholic and Protestant; in Munich, Wurzburg, and Freiburg, the theological faculty is Catholic, in all the others Protestant. Among the universities is sometimes also reckoned the academy of Minister, with two faculties, Catholic theology and philosophy. Munich, Wurzburg, and Tubingen have each a faculty of political economy, and Tubingen one of natural sciences. Altogether the German universities in 1873 had 1,637 professors and 17,463 students. Germanv has 10 polytechnic institutes, a number of theological schools, agricultural colleges, mining academies (Freiburg, Berlin, and Clausthal), and other special schools of every kind. There are 330 gymnasia, 14 Realgymnasien, 214 progymnasia and Latin schools, and 485 ReaUchulen and Barger-sc7i ulen of a higher grade. Together, these secondary schools have 177,000 pupils. The number of normal schools is 190; of public primary schools, 58,000, with 5,900,000 pupils. On an average there are 150 pupils to every 1,000 inhabitants; this proportion is considerably exceeded in Brunswick, Anhalt, Oldenburg, Saxony, and the Thuringian states, but it is not reached in Mecklenburg and Bavaria. In all German states the attendance of all children at school for at least five years is made compulsory by law; and in some states, especially in central Germany and in Wurtemberg, those who are unable to read and write are very rare exceptions.

Nearly all the capital cities have large public libraries, museums of art, scientific collections, etc. Anatomical and mineralogical museums, zoological and botanical gardens, observatories, etc., are connected with most of the universities. The number of associations of scholars in all the different Sciences is very great. The fine arts are as carefully fostered as science. Not even Italy is in advance of Germany in musical composition, many of the greatest composers of modern times being Germans, as Handel, Gluck, Mozart, Haydn, Mendelssohn, Beethoven, Weber, Meyerbeer, and Richard Wagner. In the art of painting the members of the two principal German schools, of Munich (Cornelius, Kaulbach, Piloti), and of Dusseldorf (Schadow, Lessing, Bendemann), rival the best artists of all times. In sculpture Ranch, Danneker, and Rietschel take rank with Thorwaldsen and Canova. German literature is exceedingly prolific, and contains a very great number of works of sterling merit. The number of new publications exceeded 9,000 annually from 1860 to 1808, and 10,000 from 1808 to 1873.-Of the earliest history of Germany no records remain.

The Romans before the time of Julius Caesar knew little or nothing of the people living E. of the Rhine and N. of the Danube, though some German tribes had invaded the Roman empire toward the end of the 2d century B. C. At the time of the conquest of Gaul, the Romans learned that the country beyond the Rhine contained a numerous people, who, although barbarians according to the standard of civilization of that time, had fixed settlements and were agriculturists. They were called Germani, either, as Strabo asserts, because they were nearly related (brothers german) to the inhabitants of Gaul, or, which is more probable, from the weapons they carried (ger, spear, mann, man). They were tail, light-haired, blue-eved, warlike, and fond of independence, intoxicating liquors, and gambling, in which they often staked their personal liberty. Their chief occupations were hunting, care of cattle, and the use of arms. They were divided into nobles, freemen, and serfs. They paid peculiar respect to their women and the aged, and honored chastity not less than valor. They elected their chiefs, whom the Romans often call kings. They had priests, bards, and sacred groves, and worshipped or feared gods, demigods, and giants. Woden and his wife Fria or Frigga, Ziu, and Fro, were among their chief divinities.

They believed in the immortality of the soul, or in life in Walhalla. Their sacrifices consisted of domestic animals, including horses, and sometimes of human victims. They had no cities, but mostly lived in hamlets, or small communities, which held several species of property in common. They were divided into more than 50 tribes, of which the following principally (though not simultaneously) figure in the history of the Romans: the Teutons, Ubii, Chauci, Catti, Rugii, Batavi, Usipii or Usipetes, Tencteri, Bructeri, Angri-varii, Tribocci, Cherusci, Longobardi, Suevi, Goths, Marcomanni, Hermunduri, Burgundians, Vandals, Gepidse, Franks, and Alemanni. These tribes did not all live within the limits of the Germania proper of the Romans, which was hounded by the North sea and the Baltic, the upper Elbe, Danube, and Rhine. The districts S. of the Danube and W. of the Rhine, which became Roman provinces under the names of Rluetia, Vindelicia, and Noricum, and Germania Prima and Secunda (in Gaul), were mostly inhabited by non-German tribes, and often exposed to the incursions of the Germans. One of these incursions was headed by Ariovistus, who was driven from Gaul by Caesar, in the first year of his Gallic campaigns.

Caesar and the generals of Augustus nominally subjected Germany; but when the Romans attempted ' to convert their nominal dominion into real possession of the country, they were ignomin-iously defeated, and Germany was liberated by the chief of the Cheruscan tribe, Arminius, A. D. 9. The subsequent expedition of Ger-manicus was of little avail. From that time the history of Germany is in part lost in vague traditions and in part connected with the history of the Roman empire for several centuries, until the country, over which the whole torrent of the great migration of nations had swept, became gradually united with the great Frankish empire of Clovis (481-511) and his successors. ' Among these Charlemagne, or Karl the Great (771-814), consolidated the empire by subjecting the Saxons, the last German tribes who had until then succeeded in maintaining their independence, and was in 800 proclaimed Roman emperor by the pope and the people of Rome. Charlemagne's rule extended from the Ebro in Spain to the Elbe in the northeast, the Raab (Hungary) in the east, and beyond the Po in Italy. He compelled the Saxons to become Christians, and introduced among them a feudal aristocracy and a strong temporal power of the clergy.