515. This timber, which has sometimes been called red fir, yellow fir,* and Scotch fir, is one of the most durable of the pines. It grows in Norway, Sweden, Russia, and in other parts of Northern Europe. It is also a native of the highlands of Scotland, where the tree often attains a considerable size.

The great forests of Norway, Sweden, and Russia consist almost entirely of this timber and the spruce fir (Abies excelsa). It is exported in logs and deals from the ports of these countries as well as from the Prussian ports of Memel, Konigsburg, Dantzic, and Stettin in the Baltic Sea. Some of the largest logs come from Stettin, being from 18 to 20 inches square. Those from Dantzic vary in size from 14 to 16 inches square, but can be had in lengths of from 40 to 60 feet, though of late years such long lengths have become scarce in the market. Occasionally timber has been supplied from Dantzic as much as 21 inches square.

The timber exported from Memel is, as a rule, of smaller section and shorter length than that from the other Prussian ports, being seldom more than 13 inches square or 35 feet in length.

The Russian port of Riga exports timber about 12 inches square and 40 feet long, but masts and spars for ships have been obtained 18 to 25 inches in diameter and 70 or 80 feet in length.

The Swedish and Norwegian timber is generally of smaller scantling than that obtained from either Russia or Prussia, being seldom over 12 inches square.

* Tl:is term, as well as "Memel fir," "Riga fir," "Dantzic fir," Ac, has been used in most of the Tables and by the several authors quoted throughout this work to denote the Pinus sylvestris.

The Northern pine is also imported into this country in the form of planks, deals, and battens; the first being usually about 11 inches wide, the second about 9 inches wide, and the last 7 inches wide and of any length above 6 feet; the usual thickness being from 2 1/2 to 3 1/4 inches. The term "deal" is also used to distinguish wood, in the state ready for the joiner from "timber," which is wood prepared for the use of the carpenter.

The yellow deals from Christiana are considered the best, being the most durable and mellow, but are wasteful, owing to the quantity of sap they contain. Those from Stockholm and Gefle are next in quality, but are more disposed to warp than the Christiana deals. They are considered very suitable for floors and other work where warping can be prevented. Gottenburg deals, though strong and durable, are considered bad by the joiner.

Archangel and Onega produce excellent deals for joiners' work, though not near so durable in damp situations as those obtained from Christiana. Deals from Wyborg are considered the best Russian deals in the market, but are a little inclined to sap. The knots in the Russian deals are apt to be surrounded by dead bark. The yellow deals exported from Petersburgh and Narva are inferior to those from Archangel or Onega.

Swedish deals, from their liability to warp, cannot, as a rule, be depended upon for joiners' work.

Very durable timber for the carpenter's purpose is exported from Memel and Dantzic. That from the former port is, however, much cleaner than from the latter, which is often full of largo knots in a state of decay, and the heart of the timber is sometimes "cuppy," i. e. separated from the outside rings, which is supposed to be caused by lightning or severe frosts.

The Scotch variety of the Pinus sylvestris is often grown in England, chiefly for ornamental purposes; but the wood is seldom of much value to the carpenter. It succeeds best in a dry gravelly soil.

In Scotland trees of natural grown wood are sometimes to be seen as much as 3 feet in diameter and 90 feet in height, the timber of which, though of good quality, is not equal to the best foreign kinds.

Tar, pitch, and turpentine are obtained from the Northern or Scotch pine, and the tree is thought not to be injured by extracting them after it has attained a certain age; indeed, it is supposed by some that the wood is improved by being tapped.

It was the opinion of Brindley, the celebrated engineer, founded on observation, "that red Riga deal or pine-wood would endure as long as oak in all situations."* Similar opinions have been held by Semple.†

An instance of the durability of pine is given by Duhamel, who states that the piles of the foundations of an old church, which had existed many centuries, were found to be perfectly sound in the centre, and had retained the colour and odour of resin; but the outside was a little decayed. And Dr. Smith gives an instance of the durableness of natural grown Scotch pine, some of which he had seen after it had been 300 years in the roof of an old castle as fresh and full of sap as newly-imported timber from Memel; "and part of it," he tells us, "was actually wrought up into new furniture."‡

It may be observed here that foreign timber has an advantage that is too seldom allowed to home-grown timber, in its being always more or less seasoned before arriving in this country.

The lightness and stiffness of pine render it superior to any other material for beams, girders, joists, rafters, and framing generally. It is also much used for the masts and other parts of vessels. For joiners' work it is more easily wrought, stands better, is nearly if not quite as durable as oak, and is much cheaper. The colour of the wood of the different varieties of Northern pine differs considerably, the general characteristic being a reddish yellow, or a honey yellow, of various degrees of brightness. A cross section shows alternate hard and soft circles; one part of each annual ring being soft and light-coloured, and the other harder and dark-coloured; the larger medullary rays or silver grain is absent. It has a strong odour and taste of resin, and when the resin is not too abundant it works easily under the saw and plane. The foreign wood shrinks about one-thirtieth part of its width in seasoning from the log.

* Darwin's ' Phytologia,' p. 521.

† ' Treatise on Building in Water,' p. 86

‡ Pontey's ' Forest Pruner,' p. 71.