In discussing the relations of the departments of government to each other, it has already been indicated that, in a case properly coming before a court, the court has the power to determine the constitutionality of a statute. (See above, § 7.) This power is exercised by the federal courts with reference to statutes passed by Congress, as well as by state courts in determining the constitutionality of state statutes, and no further discussion of the subject is necessary. It is sufficient to say that neither the legislative nor the executive department of the federal government is independent of the constitution, and that, in the decision of a case properly before it, a court may properly determine whether the action of Congress or of an officer of the executive department is in violation of the constitution, and therefore invalid.