A large part of the labor of every country, as we have seen, is expended in transporting commodities from the place of production to the place of consumption; and whatever can be saved of this expense is so much added to the net national income. Hence the great benefit of roads and canals. The advantage to the public is shown by the gain to individuals. Thus, suppose that, by reason of the badness of a road, a wagon can transport but twenty barrels of flour one hundred miles in eight days, and that, by improvements of the road, such as making it more level, or firm, or smooth, the same wagon could transport thirty barrels the same distance in four days; the cost of transport would then be reduced to one-third of its previous cost, with more ease to the horses, and less wear and tear of the wagon.

These useful public works are sometimes made at the expense of the State; but it has been found that the public is better accommodated with roads when the right of making them is given by charter to joint-stock companies, who are permitted to charge tolls on the road or canal; so that their cost is in fact paid by those who have the benefit of them.

The advantage of the modern railroad is yet greater, when the articles to be transported are sufficient to repay their great cost. There are only particular situations which are adapted to this species of transportation. These are, first, where there are many persons travelling to and fro, the saving of the traveller's time and expense, enabling them to charge him with a high fare. This is a great source of the profit of railroads on all the great thoroughfares of travel. Secondly, where there is a large and unin-termitted supply of a commodity to be transported; as of fossil coal to a city or shipping port, iron, lead, or other mineral, from the mine to its market. Thirdly, for the general transportation between a populous city of agricultural products on one part, and of foreign or manufactured goods on the other.

In all these cases railroads are most valuable institutions. They benefit both the producing and the consuming classes; they enlarge as well as improve the markets for every species of industry, and yield a fair profit to the capital by which they have been constructed and are maintained.

These obvious advantages, however, have not seldom tempted men to make railroads where they were not wanted, or were premature, and where, consequently, they have occasioned a waste of the national stock. The instances of these improvident undertakings have been so numerous in the United States as to deduct largely from their acknowledged benefits. The advantage of canals in facilitating the transportation of bulky commodities is yet greater. The far greater quickness of transport by railroads than by canals fits the former for the carrying of valuable merchandise, in which the requisite saving of time is important, as well as in the transportation of persons; but where great expedition is not important, canal transportation is far cheaper. It is commonly reckoned that its cost per mile is from a third to a half of that on railways. One cause of the greater cheapness is that they are kept up at less expense - the first cost of a railroad requiring perpetual renewal, after short terms; another is, that the expense of working them, and the wear and tear of the machinery used on them, is much greater. But, as there must be a large perennial supply of water for a canal, there are only particular situations, corresponding to the natural streams of a country, where canals are practicable. Railroads, however, can be made anywhere, and now impart the benefits of a comparatively cheap transportation to places to which it was formerly denied.